One of the fascinating things about Stoicism is that the philosophers and thinkers who created the foundation of the school of thought came from a huge range of different backgrounds. As you read through this list of Stoic philosophers, you’ll find an individual who was the emperor of Rome, a slave, one who lived a successful life as a writer, and another who carried water at night to make ends meet.
In this week’s post, let’s explore twelve people who left us the legacy of Stoicism as a philosophy. Without the lives and works of these individuals, we wouldn’t have the chance to learn valuable lessons about how to live a good life.
Zeno of Citium was a Hellenistic philosopher from Citium (present-day Cyprus) who lived from around 334 to 262 BC.
He is best known as the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy. Zeno's philosophical journey began after a shipwreck brought him to Athens, where he encountered the teachings of Socratic and Cynic philosophers, most notably Crates of Thebes.
“The goal of life is living in agreement with Nature.”
– Zeno of Citium
Zeno's Stoicism was deeply influenced by earlier Greek thinkers but diverged in developing a comprehensive system covering logic, physics, and ethics.
The core tenet of his philosophy was that virtue (the highest good) is based on knowledge and that the wise live in harmony with the divine Reason that governs nature. According to Zeno, this rational order is the foundation of a virtuous life, leading to tranquility and resilience against life's adversities.
“Man conquers the world by conquering himself.”
– Zeno of Citium
Zeno taught in the Stoa Poikile in Athens, where the name “Stoicism” comes from. His teachings attracted a diverse following and left a lasting legacy on Western thought, profoundly influencing Roman philosophers like Seneca, Epictetus, and Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
Despite his significant impact, few of Zeno's writings survive, and much of what is known about his work comes from the accounts of later philosophers and historians. Zeno's emphasis on rationality, self-control, and virtue remains influential, reflecting his enduring philosophical contributions.
“Well-being is attained little by little, and nevertheless is no little thing itself.”
– Zeno of Citium
“All things are parts of one single system, which is called Nature; the individual life is good when it is in harmony with Nature.”
– Zeno of Citium
“A bad feeling is a commotion of the mind repugnant to reason, and against nature.”
– Zeno of Citium
“No evil is honorable; but death is honorable; therefore death is not evil.”
– Zeno of Citium
“I made a prosperous voyage when I was shipwrecked.”
– Zeno of Citium
“When a dog is tied to a cart, if it wants to follow, it is pulled and follows, making its spontaneous act coincide with necessity. But if the dog does not follow, it will be compelled in any case. So it is with men too: even if they don’t want to, they will be compelled to follow what is destined.”
– Zeno of Citium
“Happiness is a good flow of life.”
– Zeno of Citium
“It is in virtue that happiness consists, for virtue is the state of mind which tends to make the whole of life harmonious.”
– Zeno of Citium
“All the good are friends of one another.”
– Zeno of Citium
“No one entrusts a secret to a drunken man; but one will entrust a secret to a good man; therefore, the good man will not get drunk.”
– Zeno of Citium
Cleanthes of Assos, who lived from around 330 to 230 BC, was a prominent Stoic philosopher and the successor of Zeno of Citium as the head of the Stoic school. Born in Assos, a city in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), Cleanthes initially trained as a boxer before turning to philosophy. His intellectual journey began in earnest when he moved to Athens and became a devoted student of Zeno.
“Not a single thing that is done on earth happens without you, God,
Nor in the divine heavenly sphere nor in the sea,
Except for what bad people do in their foolishness.”– Cleanthes
Cleanthes is best known for his unwavering dedication and austere lifestyle, often embodying the Stoic virtues of self-discipline and resilience.
Despite his financial hardships, he supported himself by working menial jobs, including drawing water from wells at night and attending Zeno's lectures during the day. His perseverance and commitment to philosophical study eventually earned him Zeno's respect and led to his appointment as the head of the Stoic school after Zeno's death around 262 BCE.
“People walk in wickedness all their lives or, at any rate, for the greater part of it. If they ever attain to virtue, it is late and at the very sunset of their days.”
– Cleanthes
As the second head of the Stoic school, Cleanthes played a crucial role in preserving and expanding Zeno's teachings. He emphasized the importance of living by nature and reason, and he elaborated on the concept of "logos," the divine reason that pervades and orders the universe. Cleanthes' contributions to Stoicism included a more pronounced focus on piety and the role of the divine in ethical practice, integrating theology more deeply into the Stoic framework.
"He needs little who desires but little."
– Cleanthes
One of Cleanthes' most famous works is the "Hymn to Zeus," a poem that exemplifies Stoic cosmology and theology. It praises Zeus as the rational principle governing the cosmos.
Although many of Cleanthes' writings have been lost, fragments of his work and the accounts of later Stoics, such as Chrysippus, who succeeded him, help to reconstruct his philosophical contributions.
“The willing are led by fate, the reluctant are dragged.”
– Cleanthes
Cleanthes' leadership solidified the Stoic school's foundations and helped ensure the continuation and development of its ideas. His life and teachings exemplify the Stoic endurance, piety, and rationality ideals.
Chrysippus of Soli lived in the 3rd century BC and was a pivotal Greek philosopher in Stoicism, often called the "second founder" of the school.
Born in Soli, Cilicia, he studied in Athens under Cleanthes. Around 230 BCE, Chrysippus succeeded Cleanthes as the head of the Stoic school and wrote over 700 works, significantly shaping Stoic logic, ethics, and epistemology.
“There could be no justice, unless there were also injustice; no courage, unless there were cowardice; no truth, unless there were falsehood.”
– Chrysippus of Soli
He developed the Stoic theory of knowledge, emphasizing that all knowledge comes from sensory impressions processed by reason.
His systematic approach solidified Stoicism's foundations, influencing later philosophers like Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius.
“I myself think that the wise man meddles little or not at all in affairs and does his own things.”
– Chrysippus of Soli
“The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul.”
– Chrysippus of Soli
“Wise people are in want of nothing, and yet need many things. On the other hand, nothing is needed by fools, for they do not understand how to use anything, but are in want of everything.”
– Chrysippus of Soli
“If I followed the multitude, I should not have studied philosophy.”
– Chrysippus of Soli
Diogenes of Babylon (c. 230 – c. 150 BCE) was a prominent Stoic philosopher and head of the Stoic school in Athens. Born in Seleucia, near Babylon, he studied under Chrysippus and succeeded him. Known for his intellectual rigor, Diogenes expanded Stoic doctrines in ethics, logic, and physics.
He played a key role in the diplomatic mission to Rome in 155 BCE, helping introduce Stoicism to the Romans and influencing their intellectual life. Diogenes emphasized virtue and the rational order of the cosmos, core Stoic beliefs. His leadership ensured the continuation and development of Stoic philosophy, impacting both Greek and Roman thought.
Panaetius of Rhodes lived during the 2nd century BC and was a significant character in Stoic philosophy, partly because he introduced Stoicism to Rome. Born in Rhodes, he studied in Athens under Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater of Tarsus, becoming a leading figure in the Stoic school.
Panaetius traveled to Rome, where he became a friend and advisor to influential Roman statesmen, including Scipio Aemilianus. His teachings made Stoicism accessible to the Roman elite, blending Stoic philosophy with practical ethics suited to Roman society. Unlike his predecessors, Panaetius emphasized ethics over logic and physics, making Stoicism more pragmatic and appealing to Romans.
Panaetius' adaptation of Stoic doctrines to fit the Roman context helped establish Stoicism as a significant philosophical school in Rome, influencing Roman thought and governance.
Though much of his writings are lost, Panaetius' legacy endures through his impact on Roman philosophy and his role in bridging Greek Stoicism with Roman culture.
Posidonius of Apamea is thought to have lived from 135 to 51 BC and was an influential Stoic philosopher, scientist, and teacher.
Born in Apamea (modern-day Syria), he studied under the Stoic philosopher Panaetius in Athens. Posidonius became one of the most prominent Stoic thinkers of his time, known for his extensive writings and diverse interests.
“Riches are a cause of evil, not because, of themselves, they do any evil, but because they goad men on so that they are ready to do evil.”
– Posidonius
Posidonius made significant contributions to Stoic philosophy, blending it with scientific inquiry. He explored various subjects, including astronomy, geography, meteorology, and ethics. His interdisciplinary approach sought to understand the universe's rational order and humanity's place within it.
“A single day among the learned lasts longer than the longest life of the ignorant.”
– Posidonius
Posidonius traveled widely throughout the Mediterranean, gathering knowledge and teaching others. His works influenced Greek and Roman thought, and he had notable students, including Cicero and Pompey. Through his teachings and writings, he helped shape the intellectual landscape of his era.
“When men were scattered over the earth, protected by eaves or by the dug-out shelter of a cliff or by the trunk of a hollow tree, it was philosophy that taught them to build houses.”
– Posidonius
Posidonius' legacy lies in integrating Stoic philosophy with empirical research, demonstrating the interconnectedness of all fields of knowledge. Although much of his work is lost, his influence persisted through the accounts of later philosophers and historians, solidifying his place as a critical figure in the history of Stoicism.
“Things which bestow upon the soul no greatness or confidence or freedom from care are not goods. But riches and health and similar conditions do none of these things; therefore, riches and health are not goods. Things which bestow upon the soul no greatness or confidence or freedom from care, but on the other hand create in it arrogance, vanity, and insolence, are evils. But things which are the gift of Fortune drive us into these evil ways. Therefore these things are not goods.”
– Posidonius
“There are never any occasions when you need think yourself safe because you wield the weapons of Fortune; fight with your own! Fortune does not furnish arms against herself; hence men equipped against their foes are unarmed against Fortune herself.”
– Posidonius
Seneca the Younger, also known as Lucius Annaeus Seneca, was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, and playwright who lived in the first century AD. Born in Corduba to a wealthy and educated family, Seneca was brought to Rome for his education, where he became one of the leading intellectual figures of his time.
“We suffer more in imagination than in reality.”
– Seneca
Seneca's philosophical writings focus on ethics, emphasizing the practical application of Stoic principles to everyday life. His works, such as "Letters to Lucilius," "On the Shortness of Life," and "On Anger," offer profound insights into human nature, virtue, and the importance of rationality and self-control. His accessible style and practical advice made Stoicism more relatable to a broad audience.
“Silence is a lesson learned through life’s many sufferings.”
– Seneca
In addition to his philosophical work, Seneca was deeply involved in Roman politics. He served as an advisor to Emperor Nero, though their relationship was complex and tumultuous. Seneca's influence on Nero's early reign was significant, but he eventually fell out of favor. In 65 CE, he was implicated in a conspiracy against Nero and was ordered to commit suicide, which he did with Stoic composure.
“How does it help…to make troubles heavier by bemoaning them?”
– Seneca
Seneca's tragedies, including "Phaedra" and "Thyestes," are notable contributions to Latin literature. They blend Stoic themes with dramatic intensity. His legacy endures through his philosophical writings, which continue to be studied for their timeless wisdom and profound reflections on the human condition.
“It does not matter what you bear, but how you bear it.”
– Seneca
“Wherever there is a human being, there is an opportunity for a kindness.”
– Seneca
“To bear trials with a calm mind robs misfortune of its strength and burden.”
– Seneca
“We should always allow some time to elapse, for time discloses the truth. “
– Seneca
“He who indulges in empty fears earns himself real fears.”
– Seneca
“It is better to conquer our grief than to deceive it.”
– Seneca
“It is not that we are given a short life but we make it short, and we are not ill-supplied but wasteful of it.”
– Seneca
“The man who has anticipated the coming of troubles takes away their power when they arrive.”
– Seneca
Epictetus lived from about 50 to 135 AD and was a prominent Greek Stoic philosopher who was born into slavery in what is now Turkey.
Despite his status as a slave, Epictetus was permitted to study philosophy and was eventually freed. He studied under the Stoic philosopher Musonius Rufus in Rome and later established his own school of philosophy in Nicopolis, Greece after Emperor Domitian exiled him from Rome.
“No man is free who is not master of himself.”
– Epictetus
Epictetus' teachings were centered on the core Stoic principles of self-discipline, rationality, and the distinction between what is within our control and what is not. He emphasized the importance of focusing on one's actions and attitudes rather than external events. His philosophy aimed to help individuals achieve inner peace and resilience in facing life's challenges.
“It is impossible for a man to learn what he thinks he already knows.”
– Epictetus
Although Epictetus did not write down his teachings, his student Arrian recorded them in works such as the "Discourses" and the "Enchiridion" (Handbook). These texts have had a lasting impact on ancient and modern thought, influencing notable figures like the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and later philosophers.
“To make the best of what is in our power, and take the rest as it occurs.”
– Epictetus
Epictetus' legacy lies in his practical approach to Stoicism, which provides timeless guidance on living a virtuous and fulfilling life. His emphasis on personal responsibility and the power of one's mind continues to resonate with readers and thinkers worldwide.
“You are not your body and hair-style, but your capacity for choosing well. If your choices are beautiful, so too will you be.”
– Epictetus
“Who is your master? Anyone who has control over things upon which you’ve set your heart, or over things which you seek to avoid.”
– Epictetus
“Deliberate much before saying or doing anything, for you will not have the power of recalling what is said or done.”
– Epictetus
“It isn’t the events themselves that disturb people, but only their judgements about them.”
– Epictetus
“We are not privy to the stories behind people’s actions, so we should be patient with others and suspend judgment of them, recognizing the limits of our understanding.”
– Epictetus
“Circumstances don’t make the man, they only reveal him to himself.”
– Epictetus
Marcus Aurelius was a Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher who lived from 121 to 180 AD, best known for his journals published as his Meditations. Born into a prominent family, Marcus was adopted by Emperor Antoninus Pius, who groomed him for succession. He became emperor in 161 CE and ruled until his death.
“It’s silly to try to escape other people’s faults. They are inescapable. Just try to escape your own.”
– Marcus Aurelius
Military conflicts and political challenges, including wars against Parthia and Germanic tribes, marked Marcus Aurelius' reign. Despite these difficulties, he is remembered as a wise and just ruler who sought to govern with virtue and reason.
“Be tolerant with others and strict with yourself.”
– Marcus Aurelius
Meditations, written in Greek during his military campaigns, is a series of personal reflections on Stoic philosophy. In it, Aurelius explores themes of duty, rationality, and the transient nature of life, emphasizing the importance of inner peace and self-discipline. The work offers practical guidance on living a virtuous life following nature and reason.
“To live a good life: We have the potential for it. If we learn to be indifferent to what makes no difference.”
– Marcus Aurelius
Marcus exemplified the Stoic ideals of rationality, self-control, and moral integrity as both an emperor and a philosopher.
“You don’t have to turn this into something. It doesn’t have to upset you.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“Because most of what we say and do is not essential. Ask yourself at every moment, “Is this necessary?”
– Marcus Aurelius
“Think of yourself as dead. You have lived your life. Now take what’s left and live it properly.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“It’s unfortunate that this has happened. No. It’s fortunate that this has happened and I’ve remained unharmed.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“The impediment to action advances action. What stands in the way becomes the way.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“Waste no more time arguing what a good man should be. Be one.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“If it is not right, do not do it, if it is not true, do not say it.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“It’s a disgrace in this life when the soul surrenders first while the body refuses to.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“Just that you do the right thing. The rest doesn’t matter.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“The best revenge is not to be like your enemy.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“You shouldn’t give circumstances the power to rouse anger, for they don’t care at all.”
– Marcus Aurelius
“Dig deep within yourself, for there is a fountain of goodness ever ready to flow if you will keep digging.”
—Marcus Aurelius
“Accept the things to which fate binds you and love the people with whom fate brings you together but do so with all your heart.”
– Marcus Aurelius
Musonius Rufus was a notable Roman Stoic philosopher and teacher who lived from around 30 to 101 AD. Born in Volsinii, Etruria, Musonius was known for emphasizing practical ethics and applying Stoic principles to everyday life. His teachings influenced many, including our old friend Epictetus.
“You will earn the respect of all if you begin by earning the respect of yourself. Don’t expect to encourage good deeds in people conscious of your own misdeeds.”
– Musonius Rufus
Musonius believed that philosophy should be practical and focused on improving moral character. He advocated for living by nature and reason, emphasizing self-discipline, virtue, and the importance of inner moral strength. He taught that true happiness comes from virtuous living rather than external circumstances.
“If you choose death because it is the greater evil, what sense is there in that? Or if you choose it as the lesser-evil, remember who gave you the choice. Why not try coming to terms with what you have been given?”
– Musonius Rufus
His views on gender equality were progressive for his time. He argued that men and women are equally capable of achieving virtue and should receive the same education. Musonius also emphasized the value of frugality, simplicity, and ethical behavior in all aspects of life.
“Just as there is no use in medical study unless it leads to the health of the human body, so there is no use to a philosophical doctrine unless it leads to the virtue of the human soul.”
– Musonius Rufus
Although Musonius did not leave behind any written works, his teachings were preserved through the writings of his students and later philosophers. His followers recorded his lectures and sayings, providing valuable insights into his philosophy.
“Wealth is able to buy the pleasures of eating, drinking and other sensual pursuits-yet can never afford a cheerful spirit or freedom from sorrow.”
– Musonius Rufus
Musonius Rufus' legacy endures as a key figure in the Stoic tradition, known for his practical wisdom and dedication to teaching Stoic principles as a guide for ethical living. His influence extended to later Stoic thinkers and continues to be appreciated for its relevance to moral philosophy.
“For mankind, evil is injustice and cruelty and indifference to a neighbor’s trouble, while virtue is brotherly love and goodness and justice and beneficence and concern for the welfare of your neighbor.”
– Musonius Rufus
“What good are gilded rooms or precious stones-fitted on the floor, inlaid in the walls, carried from great distances at the greatest expense? These things are pointless and unnecessary-without them isn’t it possible to live healthy? Aren’t they the source of constant trouble? Don’t they cost vast sums of money that, through public and private charity, may have benefited many?”
– Musonius Rufus
“The human being is born with an inclination toward virtue.” Musonius Rufus
– Musonius Rufus
“We begin to lose our hesitation to do immoral things when we lose our hesitation to speak of them.”
– Musonius Rufus
“If you accomplish something good with hard work, the labor passes quickly, but the good endures; if you do something shameful in pursuit of pleasure, the pleasure passes quickly, but the shame endures”
– Musonius Rufus
Hierocles lived during the 2nd century AD and was a Stoic philosopher renowned for his ethical writings and commentaries. Although little is known about his life, he is believed to have been an influential thinker in the Stoic tradition during the Roman Imperial period.
Hierocles is best known for his work "Elements of Ethics," which offers practical guidance on living a virtuous life according to Stoic principles. This work emphasizes the importance of moral development and the role of reason in achieving virtue. Hierocles introduced the concept of "concentric circles," a metaphor for the expanding scope of human relationships and our moral obligations, starting from the self and extending to family, friends, community, and humanity.
In addition to his ethical treatises, Hierocles wrote commentaries on earlier Stoic works, contributing to the preservation and interpretation of Stoic philosophy. His writings bridge the foundational Stoic doctrines and their practical application in daily life.
Hierocles' contributions to Stoic thought lie in his clear and accessible exposition of Stoic ethics, making philosophical concepts relatable and actionable for a broader audience. His influence extended through the centuries, impacting later philosophical traditions and continuing to be studied for their insightful approach to ethics and moral psychology.
Arrian of Nicomedia (c. 86 – c. 160 CE), Lucius Flavius Arrianus, was a Greek historian, military commander, and philosopher.
He was a devoted student of Epictetus and recorded his teachings in the "Discourses" and the "Enchiridion" (Handbook), which are central texts of Stoic philosophy.
Born in Nicomedia, Arrian had a distinguished public service and military career, serving as a Roman consul and governor of Cappadocia. He is also renowned for his historical work "Anabasis of Alexander," detailing Alexander the Great's campaigns. Arrian's contributions to philosophy and history have left a lasting legacy, providing valuable insights into Stoic thought and ancient history.
When we think about people who lived so far in the past, such as our twelve Stoic philosophers in discussion today, it’s easy to assume that their lives had little in common with ours. The truth is, though, that there is practically an infinite amount of helpful information we can apply to our own lives just by studying the lives of these great individuals.
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